The Enlightenment And The Development Of Scientific Method Philosophy Essay

The Enlightenment And The Development Of Scientific Method Philosophy Essay After Greek Civilization happened around 500 B.C., Sophists asserted that human should be aware of themselves and nature as Protagoras declared (Feibleman, 1995). The early philosophical thinking influenced the way people understood and gained the knowledge. The Scientific Revolution, which began in 17th century and associated with some familiar names like Isaac Isaac Newton (1643-1727), Galileo Galileo (1564-1642), had a huge impact on course of science and progress of human knowledge. Most scientific philosophers in that period believed that reason was the key to a correct method, and the model of reason was mathematics. (Hankins 2003, p. 2) Before the Enlightenment, people believed the knowledge, all intellectuals and natural world were creations of Gods will, but during the pre-modern period people started to challenge those thoughts existed since 16th century. The Enlightenment was a period when the reason was regarded as the way leading to true knowledge and several new concepts emerged did had a huge impact on development of scientific method. In 2003, Hankins described that the Enlightenment was not a fixed set of beliefs but a way of thinking, a critical approach that was supposed to open the way for constructive thought and action. (Hankins 2003, p. 2)The aim of this report is trying to describe and state the importance of Enlightenment in the development of the scientific method of inquiry. The Enlightenment not only provided scientific disciplines, but also had huge impact on latter development of scientific method. Part 1 Influential Philosophers and Scientific Method Influential Philosophers There were two major early modern thoughts emerged during the period of the Enlightenment: the Empiricism associated with Francis Bacon (1561-1626), John Locke (1632-1704) etc. and the Rationalism associated with Renà © Descartes (1596-1650) etc. The Empiricism refers to an argument asserted knowledge should be gained from sense experience and it also emphasized on several aspects of scientific knowledge related to evidence. Francis Bacons writings The Advancement of Learning and Novum Organon indicated a clearly features of scientific thinking accessing to the truth should base on observation (Smith, 2003) And he also argued that the key activity of science as one of demystifying existing false and irrational interpretations of the world around us (Smith 2003, p. 48) The powerful argument explained us that empirical observation is the way we should start from to gain real knowledge and up to this point he is seem as the Father of Experimental Philosophy (Lewes 1867, p. 119) John Locke who developed Bacons idea and pursued that the method of acquiring knowledge was to be based on in terms of sense experience. But how can we separate the knowledge gained only by sense experience and the substantive knowledge? On this point Loc ke developed Bacons idea and to some extent had impact on Metaphysics by dividing propositions into analytic/synthetic distinction (Smith 2003, p. 60). The Rationalism which associated with Renà © Descartes refers to a set of argument asserting knowledge result from logical and deductive human reasoning. Descartes made marked contribution on the development of mathematics to discover the application of Algebra to Geometry. And his system indicated that consciousness being the only ground of certitude, mathematics the only method of certitude. (Lewes 1867, p.145) Scientific Method There was only one the Enlightenment in human history, but there were several steps of construction of science and its method. There is undoubted that the Enlightenment was influenced by various philosophical thoughts, so to understand the relation between philosophy and science and scientific method should be the first step as to gain main target explaining the importance of the Enlightenment on development of scientific method. 1.jpg Figure 1 Perspective on the place and role of scientific method Gauch, G. H. (2003) Scientific Method in Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [Online Image] available from: http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=iVkugqNG9dACprintsec=frontcoverdq=scientific+methodlr=hl=zh-CNsource=gbs_similarbooks_scad=1#v=onepageq=f=true Figure 1 gave a clear explanation of relation between philosophy, philosophy of science and scientific method. It is obvious to find that philosophy is grounded by common sense. Philosophy of science is the foundation of scientific method which supports scientific specialties and technology. Lewes provided a good definition of philosophy: philosophy attempts to explain the phenomena of the universe. (Lewes 1867, p. xix) The relationship between philosophy and science can be described as following statement: science is the systematization of different generalities achieved according to particulars, and philosophy is the systematization of the generalities of generalities (Losee, 1980). So we could assert that each science associated with philosophy will be the co-ordination of its highest truths.(e. g. philosophy of science) (Lewes 1867, p. xix) The scientific method would be an essential and crucial tool access to revealing the truth through application of two patterns of reasoning which they are: Deduction and Induction. As Toraldo di Francia stated in Gowers book in 1997 that a scientific method cannot adequately be discussed if it is divided from the science to which it applies. (Gower 1997, p. 6-7) The scientific method used in each specific science gradually evolved as what science did. But the period of the Enlightenment had a significant impact on the development of scientific method of inquiry. Part 2 The significance of the Enlightenment in the development of the scientific method of inquiry Rosenberg argued science did not really spring up independently elsewhere before or after its emergence among the Greeks 2500 years ago (Rosenberg 2000, p. 14). In ancient science, most thinkers never confronted with reality because they believed those findings were all self-disclosed and self sustained. Aristotle the first philosopher of science (Losee 1980, p. 6) may be truly styled the father of the Inductive Philosophy and announce with a completeness and precision not surpassed by Bacon himself. (Lewes 1867, p. 285) Also as Lewes (1867) stated that Aristotle was the first who arranged speculative questions of discriminate between objective and subjective conceptions of phenomena, and suggested the research. By holding the contrast opinion on Plato, Aristotle searched his basis in sensory perception. His inductive deductive method gave a view of scientific inquiry that started from observation to explanatory principles by using induction and went back to observation by using ded uction (Losee, 1980). C:Documents and SettingsSophieà ¦Ã‚ ¡Ã…’à ©Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢aristotel.jpg Figure 2 Aristotles inductive deductive procedure Losee, J. (1980) A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Whether we accept it or not, the ancient scientific thoughts were the foundation of the methodology in pre-modern period. Francis Bacon an empiricist in the Enlightenment and Descartes are regarded as the Fathers of Modern Philosophy as Lewes stated (Lewes, 1867). He published a well-known literary Novum Organum in 1620 asserted a new scientific method and replace previous Aristotles methodology as Losee (1980) stated. As Bacon said all merely logical explanations are valueless (Lewes 1867, p. li), up to this point experience and induction were his reliance. Nevertheless Alexandre Koyrà © and E. J. Dijksterhuis in Losees book (1980) argued that Bacon regarded as an innovator achieved nothing in science, and his critical opinion an inductive-experimental method was not incisive and original one comparing with Aristotelian method. On the contrary, John Herschel declared in Losees book (1980) that the task executed by Francis Bacon substituted in Aristotles method was stronger and bett er. C:Documents and SettingsSophieà ¦Ã‚ ¡Ã…’à ©Ã‚ Ã‚ ¢1.jpg Figure 3 Bacons Ladder of Axioms Losee, J. (1980) A Historical Introduction to the Philosophy of Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press. As Figure 3 presented, Bacons new method explained scientific procedure should stress on three steps: gradually, progressive inductions and a method of exclusion (Losee 1980, p. 64). And to some extent, Bacon agreed with Aristotles outline of scientific procedure that the progression in science should start from observations to general principles and back to observations. So Losee (1980) argued Bacon in 1620 also emphasized the inductive scientific procedure which should gradually develop from low degree of generality to inclusive ones. Furthermore, Bacon (1620) demonstrated that natural and experimental histories should be the base of the pyramid. Bacon summarized Aristotles weakness of inductive deductive method that did not critically practice collected data and work without enough observations, and provided his own opinion of stressing on practical application of scientific knowledge, nevertheless Lewes (1867) argued Bacon failed in scientific research because he denied the valu e claimed for methodology. The inversion of Francis Bacons scientific procedure was announced by Renà © Descartes. Descartes agreed with Bacons propositions of pyramid, but hold the opposite opinion to state that the work to seek general laws should begin at the top of the pyramid and go downwards as far as possible by using a deductive procedure. And he also claimed that any idea which is both clearly and distinctly present to the mind must be true. (Losee 1980, p. 71) And Lewes (1867) argued that due to Descartes argument we could say the Deductive Method was finally and completely constructed. The impact of Enlightenment on scientific method The previous methodology in the Enlightenment provided a scientific and philosophical foundation of modern science, and directly impacted Galileo, Newton in their scientific method. Just as Smith (2003) argued that the scientific method provided by Bacon and Descartes established the framework for modern scientific knowledge. Galileo who made observation of the surface of the sun and four satellites of Jupiter promoted the Method of Resolution and the Method of Composition. He agreed with Bacons inductive method and Descartes deductive. Let me explain. Just like Losee (1980) said Galileos agreement of importance of physical abstraction and idealization extended the inductive techniques. In Method of Resolution, Galileo sampled a series of fluids from observed bodies and gave an extrapolation. Losee (1980) argued that this extrapolation was only based on an ordered phenomenon, but no normal phenomena. And such idealization method makes him emphasize on imagination on the process of scientific procedure. But on the other hand, he also processed deductive method. In the Method of Composition, Galileo suggested the deduction of consequences that hypothesize the maximum range is achieved at 45 degree (Losee 1980, p. 55). Ohear (1991) described Galileos method had a positive feature in deductive systematization . Newton directly disagreed with Descartes deductive method and supported an examination of phenomena according to peoples generalization. So Newton declared that Although the arguing from Experiments and Observations by Induction is no Demonstration of general Conclusion, yet it is the best way of arguing which the Nature of Things admits of. (Newton 1952, p. 404) But on the other hand, he also applied deductive method in famous Optical experiment. So Smith described that it was creative mix of precise observation and scientific detachment from ones object derived from Bacon and the assumption of human consciousness as the source of knowledge derived from Descartes.(Smith 2003, p. 53) Lets see how Newton argued his Analysis and Synthesis Method and how it applied on scientific procedure. Newton affirmed Aristotles inductive-deductive procedure and opposed this as his Method of Analysis and Synthesis. In order to justify his thought, he agreed with Grosseteste and Roger Bacon in 13th century and Galileo and Francis Bacon in 17th century as Ohear (1991) described. His method fully applied in his famous optical experiment, and find out sunlight is consisted of different colors. He used inductively argued that rays of sunlight have refractive feature, and then he used deductive to justify his hypothesis for further consequences of this theory. Thus he was able introduce his laws of motion and gravitation. Conclusion The debates between deduction and induction never stopped, but the Enlightenment was such a crucial period that found the most important argument that any truth and scientific knowledge cannot be achieved without a correct scientific method. And the promotion of those methods was encouraged by several different philosophical scientists with various backgrounds. The reasoning is such a process by using scientific method to investigate new knowledge and revise previous knowledge. If a hypothetical reasoning bases on sense experience, the deductive reasoning is such a process may make the scientific conclusion more reliable and valid. Just like Gower said the reasoning they require is, in fact, deductive rather than inductive. No matter which method they would prefer, the significance of the Enlightenment is to establish thinking searching scientific methodology for each scientific course.

Genetically Engineered Crops: The Benefits Outweigh the Risks Essay

In order to understand the controversy of genetically engineered crops one must understand what genetic engineering or genetic modification is: â€Å"GMO are organisms that are generated by combining genes of different species using recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology. Resulting organisms are then said to be transgenic, genetically engineered or genetically modified (GM). This group of organisms includes... plants.† (Celec et al., 2005) The genetic modification of crops and plants was created so that crops could, â€Å"... protect themselves against insects and disease, to feed and vaccinate people at the same time, to flourish in poor soil and drought, or to improve the quantity and bioavailability of individual nutrients.† (Roberts, Struble, McCullum-Gomez, Wilkins, 2006). These benefits may seem to outweigh the risks and in reality they do, however this does not mean the consumer should not be notified of the risks they are taking. The hallmark of our free society demands that the consumer be able to choose whether or not they want to eat something that may have health risks product labeling that identifies GMO ingredients allows for consumers to choose a particular product while ensuring that the producer feel more at ease with the way they disclose information and promote their product. Genetically engineered crops have many risks ranging from mild to serious. The risks of food allergy is one more serious factor. â€Å"There are risks not only from the parent crop, but in addition the new transgenic product can be an allergen.† (Celec et al., 2005) The risk of food allergens from genetic engineering is evident in this case with Brazil nuts and soy beans. In this case genetically modified soy beans had been given a protein from Brazil nut... ...base Ehrenfreund, M., Wheat With Engineered Gene Demonstrates Challenges for Researchers. (2013, May). Retrieved November 14, 2013, from www.washingtonpost.com Guidance for Industry: Voluntary Labeling Indicating Whether Foods Have or Have Not Been Developed Using Bioengineering; Draft Guidance, (2013, August). Retrieved November 15, 2013, from www.fda.gov Kaya, I. H. (2012). Genetically modified crops and human health. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances, 11(19), 3613-3617. Retrieved November 20, 2013, from Medwell Journals database. Roberts, K. S., Struble, M. B., McCullum-Gomez, C., Wilkins J. L. (2006). Use of a risk communication model to evaluate dietetics professionals’ viewpoints on genetically engineered foods and crops. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 106(5), 719-727. Retrieved November 15, 2013, from ScienceDirect database.

Modernist Poets E.E. Cummings, Wallace Stevens, and T.S. Eliot Change t

Modernist Poets E.E. Cummings, Wallace Stevens, and T.S. Eliot Change the Face of American Poetry Modernist poets such as E.E. Cummings, Wallace Stevens, and T.S. Eliot changed the face of American poetry by destroying the notion that American culture is far inferior to European culture. These and other American poets accomplished the feat of defining an American poetic style in the Modern Era by means of a truly American idea. That idea is the melting pot. Just as American culture exists as a mixture of races, beliefs, and ideas, the new American style of poetry exists as a mixture of old English styles with a new concept of the international style. Modern poets experiment with language, theme, and convention to "cleanse language and culture of old and worn-out meanings, and introduce to poetry what is American in thought, sensibility, perception, observation, and diction [. . .]. [T]hey become exemplary of the modern endeavors of consciousness itself" (McQuade 1241). An important event that caused so many Modernist American poets to invoke the international style was the "expatriate immigration." Many American writers, artists, and musicians left for Europe, looking for new inspiration and fresh starts. Among those emigrating were Eliot, Pound, Hughes, Cummings, and Frost. Once in Europe, there writers were exposed to the new avant-garde art and poetry taking place there. At this time, the writers began to draw inspiration from and to imitate European writers. T. S. Eliot began to imitate the topics and tones of the French poets Charles Bauldelaire and Jules LaForgue, the latter for his bourgeoisie satire. Eliot's poetry written while in Europe displayed a satire that was foreign to American readers. Such is seen in "Th... ...ty at the time-to escape the expectations of a system which no longer works, to break free from the oppression of the social rank-and-file, and to gain true personal freedom. Works Cited Cummings, E.E. "[in Just-]." McQuade, et al. 2: 1419. -. "[she being brand]." McQuade, et al. 2: 1421. -. "[the Cambridge ladies who live in furnished souls]." McQuade, et al. 2: 1420. McQuade, Donald, et al. Ed. The Harper American Literature. 2nd ed. 2 vols. New York: HarperCollins, 1993. -. "The Literature of Modernism: Poetry 1912-1940." McQuade et al. 2: 1233-1242. Stevens, Wallace. " Anecdote of the Jar." McQuade, et al. 2: 1279. -. "The Plain Sense of Things." McQuade, et al. 2: 1286. Williams, William Carlos. "To Elsie." McQuade, et al. 2: 1304.

Rita M. Gross Feminism and Religion Essay -- Rita Gross Feminist Pape

In her book Feminism and Religion, Rita M. Gross provides readers with an introduction to the need for, and benefits of, androgynous scholarship in the field of religious studies. Gross strives to make readers aware of the dangers of androcentric, Eurocentric scholarship. Moreover, she advances the claim that, â€Å"properly pursued, the field of religious studies involves study of all major religions found in human history† and an equal representation of both men’s and women’s religious experiences (Gross 1-4). Because androcentrism has permeated both religion and scholarship for the greater part of history, Gross strives to correct and augment this perspective with illuminating examples of what she deems â€Å"proper† religious scholarship – scholarship that includes the experiences of women. Ultimately, Gross believes that â€Å"feminist scholarship requires the study of the actual lives and thoughts of women† (Gross 81) and that â₠¬Å"the diversity within feminist theology and spirituality is its strength† (Gross 49). The anthology Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions (Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young, Editors) is a glowing example of the type of religious scholarship Gross, and others like her, fought so tenaciously to bring into being. In the introduction to Her Voice, Her Faith, Young expresses a desire akin to Gross’: When both the male and female voice become of equal strength†¦ we may begin to see for the first time three-dimensional religious worlds — fully of the two genders (and multiple cultures) but also of the human dimension that transcends their particulars†¦ This goal, of stereophonic sound, I hope, will inform the religious voices of the future (Sharma 9). Sharma and Young deftly assembled the... ...of the â€Å"stereophonic sound† Young, Gross and other feminists yearn to hear, â€Å"informing the religious voices of the future† (Sharma 9). Bibliography Gross, Rita M. Feminism and Religion. Boston: Beacon Press, 1996. Heschel, Susannah. â€Å"Judaism.† Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Ed. Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. 145-167. Narayanan, Vasudha. â€Å"Hinduism.† Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Ed. Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. 11-57. Sharma, Arvind and Katherine K. Young, Ed. Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. Wong, Eva. â€Å"Taoism.† Her Voice, Her Faith: Women Speak on World Religions. Ed. Arvind Sharma and Katherine K. Young. Boulder: Westview Press, 2003. 119-143.

Technical Report The Construction of Alloy Wheels :: Design and Technology

Technical Report The Construction of Alloy Wheels Introduction Aluminium alloy wheels are now used in all branches of Motor Racing, ranging from Touring cars and Rally cars to Formula One cars. The Alloy wheels offer far superior mechanical properties than the conventional steel wheels formerly used. These benefits include reduced un-sprung weight, i.e. not held by the suspension, providing more precise steering input and improved responsiveness. Alloy wheels also improve acceleration and braking due to the reduction of weight. The added strength of a quality alloy wheel can significantly reduce wheel/tire deflection in cornering. This is particularly critical with a vehicle equipped with high performance tires where lateral forces may approach 1.0g. The metals in alloy wheels are excellent conductors of heat - improving heat dissipation from the brakes - reducing risk of brake fade under demanding conditions. Additionally, alloy wheels can be designed to allow more air to flow over the brakes, this can help cooling. The alloy used in the finest road wheels today is a blend of aluminium and other elements. The term "mag wheel" is sometimes incorrectly used to describe alloy wheels. Magnesium is generally considered to be an unsuitable alloy for road usage due to its brittle nature and susceptibility to corrosion. Nowadays, there are basically three ways in which alloy automotive wheels are constructed. The three types can be referred to simply by cast, billet and forged. Casting is a relatively inexpensive way to produce a high-quality, fairly strong alloy wheel; many aftermarket alloy wheels designed for street use are made this way. Billet wheels are machined from a solid chunk of material and forging uses intense heat and pressure to transform a slug of alloy material into the final shape of a wheel. This report will focus mainly on the casting processes used. Casting Processes The most common process of constructing alloy wheels is One-Piece Casting, there are a number of methods to do this, and the most basic is Die Casting, this process is used world wide throughout the casting industry and is not exclusive to alloy wheels. The Die Casting process uses a permanent mould usually made of metal, which generally means that there is high tooling costs compared to other methods of casting, but this high tooling cost is combined with low production costs. This means that die casting is suitable for products with a large production number. There are four main processes in the die casting family, these are: Gravity Die Casting Pressure Die Casting Low Pressure Die Casting Squeeze Casting Gravity Die Casting This process is the most simple of the four, the mould or die, which is generally made in two halves, is filled with molten metal, in the

Admissions to Honors Program

I have personally chosen to study at Saddleback College as it is of much convenience to me in both social and economic aspects. Besides, your curriculum is among the best in the region offering quality education. I am looking forward to being admitted for honors in Saddleback College and make my childhood dreams of pursuing higher education a reality.I believe that in order to transform and bring change in the society and hence the global society as a whole, there is need to understand and explore the integrative disciplines pertaining to my field of study. I am sure that I will gain a lot of knowledge, which will be useful in expanding my vision in my area of interest.Besides, completion of honors program in Saddleback will be an opening opportunity for joining a reputable university such as University of California. My ultimate goal is to excel academically and pursue a degree and later a doctorate. My college GPA is satisfactory as I have an average of 3.8 out of the recommended 3 .2. Thus, my performance is exceptionally good.Saddleback College has presented me with a new environment where I met new challenges. Though at first I perceived these challenges as an obstacle to achieving my dream goal, I have now come to appreciate them because they have prepared me for similar or more complex challenges that I expect to encounter during my future studies and life.The skills and knowledge that will be acquired through the program will open an opportunity to explore my area of study to the maximum. Consequently, my ultimate goal of becoming a resourceful person in the society will be realized. I always believe in myself and I have never let anything come on the way of my success. I am the kind of person who is ready to give up his happiness for the sake of long term goals.With the knowledge and experiences from work that I have gained from internship, I have been able to develop different skills to relate theoretical knowhow acquired in class to real life situatio n as well as enhancing my skills in critical and innovative thinking not to mention communication skills.The experiences that I have had in the past have opened my perspective in different areas. Being a student, I have realized the importance of team work in accomplishing important goals in a project. I also developed research skills that I believe will be useful in undertaking my honors and hence taking a degree, masters and even a doctorate in a top university.I have always worked hard and with passion in pursuit for excellence, which enabled me overcome the all the challenges that stood on my way. Throughout my school life starting from junior school through college, I have never given up the battle for excellence. I have always challenged my ultimate goal something, which has helped me, not only achieve academically but also thrive in real life.The leadership skills that I have developed over the years within the various societies and clubs in school have presented me with an o pportunity to deal with different issues. The skills have also initiated self-confidence and self esteem that are important in facing life issues. I am also disciplined and flexible capable of tolerating those who share opposing ideas.I am willing to undergo any sort of training that will enable me to secure a place for honors in saddleback College. I have encountered several challenges in my studies which have helped me discover my potential, strengths and weakness hence will comfortably handle my new course. For instance, during my high school years, I lost my grandfather and a very close friend which disrupted my studies. Even though I did not get a good score, I was able to catch up with life and since then things have been fine.The event helped me to discover my strength of enduring hardships and turning them into opportunities. I am sure that being part of the institution will open further opportunities in advancing my knowledge in a reputable university.The cultural diversity in saddleback has been an important aspect in shaping my perspective to life. The social interaction has been a great experience, which has been a mind opener to the broader world. The well established information technology in the college also presented me with sufficient knowledge and skills that I believe are useful in partaking an honors.My hard work and dedication have always been my foundation for excellence not only in academics, but also in accomplishing other demands in life. I have well developed problem solving skills that are critical in pursuing education and dealing with the various situations in life. Ultimately, I believe in myself with a self driven ambition that has got me this far.

Unique Challenges of International Staffing

HR managers are responsible for staffing operations globally. There are three main ways of staffing internationally. First, the company can send people from its home country. These employees are often referred to as expatriates, or home-country nationals. Second, it can hire host-country nationals, natives of the host country, to do the managing. Third, it can hire third-country nationals, natives of a country other than the home country or the host country. Expatriates cost companies, on average, $1 million over a three year period. This can be three to five times what a domestic assignment cost.This is very costly for the company and a disadvantage for a company. There has been a trend with companies in the recent years to send expatriates for only two – twelve months. There are three main advantages to this: 1. Hiring local citizens is generally less costly than relocating expatriates. 2. Since local governments usually want good jobs for their citizens, foreign employers m ay be required to hire locally. 3. Most customers want to do business with companies (and people) they perceive to be local versus foreign. HR departments must also be aware of cultural, political, and legal environments when recruiting internationally.Also, HR manager’s need to make sure that work permits and visas are applied for early in the relocation process. There are so many aspects of hiring abroad that it is nearly impossible to be perfect at making all the arrangements, especially the language barrier to overcome. Also, finding ones with core skills for the assignments is very hard. Training ones to have these skills can take a longer time than it should at times. Hiring local citizens with certain qualifications could be very difficult especially if it is in a poor country that is not used to working with certain qualifications.